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Currently, a gap in the literature exists on the link between radicalization processes and
the social psychology of the Internet. While radicalization processes are increasingly
becoming subject to empirical studies, only a subset of these studies have taken into
account online dynamics, and even fewer have approached this issue from a social psychological
perspective. However, the literature on radicalization to violent extremism clearly establishes
the central role of social psychology. It also suggests that the Internet is increasingly salient for
understanding processes of radicalization. It follows then, that understanding radicalization processes
requires an explanation of how the Internet may influence beliefs and behaviours; that is,
of the social psychology of the Internet.
This report outlines the link between the social psychology of the Internet and violent extremism.
It is divided into two parts. The first part, provides a review of the literature on the
social psychology of the Internet, including its potential applications to the understanding of
violent extremism. This section examines both the individual and collective dimensions involved
when individuals reach out and interact online with like-minded virtual peers, and their effects
on individual and collective behaviours. Concepts defined in the literature review are then applied
to analyze fifteen case studies of individuals whose involvement in violent extremist acts
has been confirmed, and where the Internet played a role, small or large, in their radicalization
trajectory. These fifteen cases aim to achieve maximum variance in regard to the role the Internet
played in radicalization processes across individuals. All cases are from open sources, all are
relevant to Canada although some cases selected include individuals active in (or coming from)
other countries. The aim is to provide a clear assessment of the aspects of the literature from the
research field of the social psychology of the Internet that has been shown most relevant to violent
extremism.

The second part of the report builds off the literature review and case study analysis, looking
at programs that aim to counter violent extremism online. This section can be broken down
into two sub-sections. First a review of the literature on countering violent extremism online is

In the recent past, the numbers of religiously- and politically-motivated terrorist attacks have increased, inevitably raising the question of effective measures to prevent further terrorist attacks. Empirical studies related to school shootings have shown that school shooters reliably (directly and indirectly) disclosed their intentions or plans prior to the attack, a phenomenon termed leaking or leakage. Leaking has been used for preventive purposes in this area of research. Recent research has indicated that leaking was also present prior to politically and religiously motivated terrorist attacks. In order to determine the current state of knowledge about leaking related to these offenses, we conducted a review of the international literature on religiously and politically motivated terrorist attacks. Up to 90% of the offenders showed some type of leaking prior to the attacks. A range of different forms of leaking could be observed. Leaking often occurred in the form of verbal communication with family and friends and/or via communication over the Internet. Terrorist offenders apparently tend to show leaking more often than other groups of mass murderers. Findings regarding similarities and dissimilarities in leaking between religiously motivated, jihadist and politically-motivated, far-right terrorist attacks were contradictory. We discuss the implications of these findings for practice and research as well as the strengths and possible weaknesses of the leaking concept.

Noon Briefing by Stephanie Dujarric, Spokesman for the Secretary General

The Strong Cities Network (SCN) conducted an online mapping exercise to investigate the main extremist narratives deployed in North Macedonia. Using a mixed method of automated collection and expert manual qualitative online research, SCN identified the main narratives across political, ethnic and religiously inspired extremist and hate groups. On the basis of these findings, SCN provided a comprehensive set of recommendations for national government, local authorities, civil society and the private tech sector to help inform a more comprehensive response to these online harms. The findings from this study will also inform multi-agency work the network is carrying out with the community.

In this chapter, we explore the communication modes and tactics used by extremists across the ideological spectrum to spread their narratives on social media. We argue that a growing body of evidence suggests that extremist movements across the political spectrum make use of similar communication modes and tactics on social media to reach their objectives. Drawing on specific case studies and examples from extreme-right, conspiracy myth and Islamist extremist campaigns, this chapter highlights how groups and networks adapt to changing circumstances and external pressure by making different strategic choices about whether to use overt or covert, centralized or crowdsourced, influencer-based or network-based and aggressive or optics-focused communication modes. On a tactical level, our case studies provide insights into approaches chosen by extremist movements to radicalize sympathizers, influence mainstream audiences and intimidate political opponents. Throughout these case studies, it becomes clear that extremists are engaged in collective learning in relation to their communication modes and the use of new technologies, with approaches and instructional materials being shared and inspiring extremists across borders.

Germany’s Network Enforcement Act, or NetzDG law represents a key test for combatting hate speech on the internet. Under the law, which came into effect on January 1, 2018, online platforms face fines of up to €50 million for systemic failure to delete illegal content. Supporters see the legislation as a necessary and efficient response to the threat of online hatred and extremism. Critics view it as an attempt to privatise a new ‘draconian’ censorship regime, forcing social media platforms to respond to this new painful liability with unnecessary takedowns. This study shows that the reality is in between these extremes. NetzDG has not provoked mass requests for takedowns. Nor has it forced internet platforms to adopt a ‘take down, ask later’ approach. At the same time, it remains uncertain whether NetzDG has achieved significant results in reaching its stated goal of preventing hate speech. This paper begins by explaining the background that led to the development and passage of NetzDG. It examines the reaction to the law by civil society, platforms and the government. It concludes with suggestions, for platforms, civil society and the authorities, on ways to improve the law to be effective in the fight against online hate while keeping the internet open and free.